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The problem. The year 2000 marked a new era of growth for online learning (American Society for Training & Development, 2002). Implementing e-learning is common practice in public and private sectors (Zimmerman, 2001). Training mandates are central among the factors fueling this upsurge (Tucker, 2005). Although an increasing number of organizations are developing e-learning strategies to address their training needs, exploring online learning theoretically and identifying key factors that will enhance its effectiveness is necessary. While previous research studies have examined student satisfaction in a distance-learning environment, this topic has not been given adequate attention (Biner, Dean & Mellinger, 1994). Despite the growing convergent research threads on e-learning (Davis, 1989; Malhotra & Galletta, 1999; Wang, 2003), few have strong theoretical foundations (Salas & Cannon-Bowers, 2001). Social learning theory and attitude-behavior theory can aid in developing guidelines for creating e-learning training. The present research measured the relationships among learner satisfaction, self-efficacy, and usefulness within an e-learning context. Method. The sample consisted of 440 government agency employees in the Southwestern United States. Participants completed mandatory e-learning courses in Training and Development's learning management system. They were asked to complete a demographics survey and three scales, Mungania's (2004) E-learning Self-Efficacy Scale, Davis' (1993) Perceived Usefulness Scale, and Wang's (2003) Electronic Learner Satisfaction Instrument. These were used to measure the relationships among employees' perceptions of self-efficacy, usefulness, and satisfaction of e-learning. Results. Significant positive correlations were found among the three e-learning variables, the correlation between e-learner satisfaction and perceived usefulness being the strongest of these. This finding suggests that employees who believed that taking mandated training online would improve their job performance were also satisfied with the training. Post hoc analyses revealed significant gender and job-classification differences among e-learner satisfaction. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT]

INTRODUCTION

The year 2000 marked a new era of growth for online learning (American Society for Training & Development, 2002). Not surprisingly, America's transitioning from an industrial and information age (Bandura, 1997) to one of knowledge acquisition has had a profound impact on education (Harun, 2002), in effect transforming traditional classroom training into a new mode of learning (Kirk, 2002). According to Stephen Barkley, Executive Vice President of Performance Learning Systems, Inc., "There's no discussion anymore about whether or not this [the electronic learning movement] is going to happen; it's about how quickly it's going to happen" (Zimmerman, 2001, p. 36). Responding to the impact technology will have on training and with the goal of increasing employees' knowledge, skills, and abilities, the American Society for Training & Development (ASTD) and the National Governors Association organized the Commission on Technology and Adult Learning, which foresees an American workforce on a continual path of learning (Pantazis, 2000). Recent reports from research ascertain that 63% of United States adults are now online (Carter, 2004) and 64% of web users in America have participated in web-based training (Driscoll, 1999). According to ASTD's 2005 State of the Industry Report, training delivered by means of technology increased from 24% in 2003 to 28% in 2004. It is estimated that by 2008, the e-learning market will rise to $13.5 billion within the United States and $21 billion worldwide (Tucker, 2005). Already, many leading organizations are implementing electronic learning or "e-leaming" into current business practices (Kirk, 2002).

Implementing e-learning is common practice in public and private sectors (Zimmerman, 2001). Depending on organizations' needs, online training programs are either voluntary or mandatory. For voluntary online training sessions, employees are given the option to select topics that are of interest to them, such as professional development. However, certain training classes, such as those pertaining to sexual harassment or the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA), are mandated by the state. Organizations are implementing online classes for both voluntary and mandatory training. The rapid growth of technology is reshaping the way training is being delivered into companies (Salas & Cannon-Bowers, 2001). The incentives for using technology to deliver knowledge are the immediate benefits associated with it. Besides satisfying organizational objectives to achieve bottom-line results, e-learning systems are also addressing the needs of those employees (e.g., onsite employees, telecommuters, office satellite employees, field employees) who work for the same company, but live in different parts of the world (Pituch & Lee, 2006).

Employees and organizations are reaping the rewards of this new approach to learning. According to the elearning guru Kevin Kruse (2006), "It is unarguable that e-leaming is rapidly growing as a form of training delivery and most [organizations] are finding that the clear benefits of e-learning will guarantee it a role in their overall learning strategy" (p. 3). Former Nonprofit Technology Enterprise Network (N-TEN) Executive Director Joe Baker further explains that "...People really appreciate the convenience associated with e-learning, and organizations like the fact that it allows them to reach many more learners" (Ellis, 2006, para. 4). By replicating classroom-like settings, e-leaming can deliver content and knowledge as valuable as that of traditional training environments (Barron, 1998). Unlike conventional training, which often requires employees to travel to different sites and assemble in various classrooms at specific times, online training has fewer restrictions. Employees benefit from completing courses anytime, on their own, without having to travel away from the office or home (Kapp & McKeague, 2002; Sung & Ou, 2002). Meeting face-to-face (FTF) is no longer essential; instead, employees' needs are being met via electronic modes of delivery (e.g., chat rooms, discussion boards, instant messaging). E-learning benefits not only employees but also the organizations within which they work. For some organizations, the purpose of adopting an e-leaming system (an operational system that provides online courses) is to increase return on investments, reduce travel costs, assist with workforce planning, and deliver content without having to sacrifice quality (Driscoll, 1999). By creating online classes and making them readily available to employees' desktops, customized learning systems increase organizational productivity (Kirk, 2002). The purpose of offering online courses is twofold: (a) to lessen the amount of time needed to complete a training program, and (b) to increase organizational productivity. As Delta Airlines manager Ted Lehne has noted, "It [Federal Aviation Administration online training] used to take an average of six to eight hours for these courses when they were paper-based; now employees can do it in an hour or less (Zimmerman, 2001, p. 36). However, in spite of the many claims regarding the advantages to e-learning, the question of whether or not organizations are receiving the maximum benefits from this type of learning has not been adequately addressed.

Statement of the Problem and Purpose of the Study

Although an increasing number of organizations are adopting e-learning strategies to address their training needs, more research is needed to explore online learning theoretically and to identify key factors that will enhance its effectiveness. Therefore, the purpose of the present research is to measure the relationships among learner satisfaction, self-efficacy, and perceived usefulness within an e-leaming context and to explore online learning theoretically. Despite the amount of money invested in e-learning, organizations have not always realized the economic gains they anticipated (Strother, 2002). The claims for the new learning have been made without scientifically sound research (Salas & Cannon-Bowers, 2001). To date, no empirical research has examined employees' perceptions of state-mandated e-learning training programs. Employees are required to complete certain training courses that are mandated by the state (e.g., HIPPA) or by the organization within which they work. Depending on the type of mandated training, employees are required to complete them on a routine basis, such as quarterly, annually, or bi-annually. For example, within the state of California, supervisors need to complete 2 hours of sexual harassment training every 2 years (Sexual Harassment: Training and Education Bill, 2004). These mandated training sessions have moved from the conventional classroom setting to an electronic platform. Within the literature, more attention has been directed towards the voluntary online training in which employees can freely select from a catalog of topics than towards mandated online training. Empirical research is also lacking in the area of effective e-learning evaluations. As a result, scholars/researchers have begun to question the integrity of online learning. For example, Strother asks, "When we measure the results of e-learning, do we have to evaluate e-learning differently from traditional training methods?" (2002, p. 2). Phillips, Phillips, and Zuniga (2000) underscore the evaluative weakness: "Although recent attention has increased e-learning evaluation, the current research base for evaluating e-learning is inadequate. Due to the initial cost of implementing e-leaming programs, it is important to continue to conduct evaluation studies" (p. 1).

Importance of the Study

Despite the highly acclaimed benefits associated with e-learning, there is a lack of scientifically grounded research. The present investigation has the potential to contribute to e-learning effectiveness in two ways. First, the present study will identify significant learner characteristics; second, it will expand the knowledge base of elearning-related theories. Accordingly, the present empirical study proposes to make significant contributions in applied and academic research settings. With the intent of preparing organizations for potential challenges related to e-learning, the present correlational study will aid them in the selection and implementation of learning management systems (LMS)-technology-driven management systems for online classes. Furthermore, the data obtained in the present study can help guide managers in the direction of creating effective program evaluations, with the aim of maximizing the full potential of e-learning. Previous research raised several key questions related to computer self-efficacy, perceived usefulness, and satisfaction (Davis, 1989, 1993; Murphy, Coover, & Owen, 1989; Wang, 2003). Are e-learners confident about taking online classes? Do they think this training is useful? Are they satisfied? Answering research questions such as these can provide training managers, instructional designers, and researchers with useful information concerning e-learning's effectiveness. The present study will address the need for training managers to create effective e-learning program evaluations. Furthermore, it can help guide instructional designers in the direction of improving online course development and e-learning platforms, such as learning management systems. Finally, to provide additional support and explanation to the e-learning phenomenon, the present study will employ fundamental theories. Because online learning is a key method of training and development in organizational settings and because e-learner satisfaction is a major concern of managers who allocate money for online learning systems, the present research makes significant contributions in the following settings: (a) the practical applied setting and (b) the academic research setting.

Practical Applied Setting

E-learning is becoming a standard method for delivering course content and for lowering training costs (Kruse, 2006). Accordingly, organizations are implementing online learning systems at a rapid rate. Training mandates are central among the factors fueling this upsurge (Tucker, 2005). These mandates require organizations, such as the government and corporations, to provide courses that fall under federal and state regulations. For instance, the California Assembly Bill 1825 passed in 2004 requires all supervisors to receive two hours of sexual harassment training every two years (Sexual Harassment: Training and Education Bill, 2004). To ensure that organizations are compliant with state laws such as this one, training managers need to make certain that employees complete the training. Recently, this law was updated to offer online versions of this class as an alternative to the traditional face-to-face classroom setting. By placing mandated training online, managers can not only track their employees' progress easily but also keep a record of their own compliance with state and federal laws. While elearning allows managers to stay in compliance with state and federal regulations, it can also improve learner satisfaction and, in turn, lower student drop out rates.

If employees are satisfied with online learning, they may be more inclined to complete the course, which will keep government organizations in compliance with state mandates. Conversely, when employees are dissatisfied with online learning, they are not motivated to finish the training and will eventually drop out (Anderson, 2005). Ultimately, high attrition and low completion rates may lead to noncompliance with statemandated training programs. Consequently, exploring employee satisfaction among employees is one approach to illustrating online learning effectiveness online.

Adamson and Shine (2003) found that students with high levels of satisfaction had higher levels of reuse intention and made fewer complaints, while another study revealed that satisfied students are better performers (Gelderman, 1998). Since the benefits and information gained from evaluation surveys may support the decision to invest in learning management systems, a substantial number of companies are using satisfaction surveys as a standard tool of measuring their learning systems' effectiveness (Adamson & Shine, 2003).

For some organizations, e-learning is used only occasionally to train employees; however, for others, elearning may be the only method used to deliver training (Strother, 2002). Depending on how important delivering course content is, human resources professionals may decide to create the course online, thereby giving employees immediate access to job-related information. Senge (1990) pointed out that job training is critical because it produces knowledgeable, productive, and highly committed employees. The knowledge acquired from training empowers employees to carry out their work responsibilities effectively and efficiently (Strother, 2002); thus, it is imperative for employees to complete e-learning courses. If employees do not take training offered only online, they may not acquire the necessary knowledge to perform their jobs. Consequently, e-learning could make the difference in an organization's overall productivity and ultimately affect company-wide performance (Rummler & Brache, 1990). In a global information workforce in particular, electronic instructional design is imperative (Woods, 2004).

Academic Research Setting

According to Salas and Cannon-Bowers (2001), a lack of theoretical-based research will limit a researcher's ability to uncover distance learning guidelines and principles. In an effort to add to the body of information system and technology learning research, the present study will examine theories related to online learning. Additionally, it will help increase empirical research of e-learning programs in government organizations. The present study will also examine the relationship of online learning factors, such as self-efficacy and perceived usefulness. It is important to study the attributes, attitudes, and preferences of e-learners that can lead to high levels of employee satisfaction. "Once researchers gain a better understanding of factors associated with student success in online learning environments, employers will then be able to positively influence student outcomes" (Tresman, 2002, p. 3). However, there is insufficient information that identifies the key factors related to student satisfaction (Bures, Amundsen, & Abrami, 2002; Eastmond, 1994; Gunawardona & Duphorne, 2000). Therefore, the present study addresses this need by exploring the relationships e-learning self-efficacy and perceived usefulness may have with e-learner satisfaction.

E-Learning Satisfaction, Self-Efficacy, and Usefulness

The success of e-learning depends on learner satisfaction and other end-user factors such as self-efficacy and usefulness (Chen, Lin, & Kinshuk, 2004). As indicated earlier, e-learner satisfaction is defined as a summary affective response that follows asynchronous e-learning activities (Wang, 2003). Affect is defined as feelings of like or dislike. Additionally, high level of user satisfaction suggests increased motivation and commitment to e-leaming programs, lower mortality rates, better learning achievement, and lower dropout rate (Biner, Dean, & Mellinger, 1994; Chen, Lin & Kinshuk, 2004; Chute, Thompson, & Hancock, 1999; Donohue & Wong, 1997). An end-user who perceives e-leaming to be a valuable or useful learning tool is more likely to be satisfied with it (Adamson & Shine, 2003). "A system that does not help people perform their jobs is not likely to be received favorably in spite of careful implementation efforts" (as cited in Davis, 1989, p. 321). Empirical research findings (Bean & Bradley, 1986; Konradt, Christophersen, & Schaefer-Kuelz, 2006; Peng, Tsai, & Wu, 2006) showed a positive relationship between e-leamer satisfaction and perceived usefulness.

Satisfaction is correlated not only with usefulness, but also with self-efficacy, the psychological belief in a person's own judgments of his or her capabilities to organize and execute a course of action required to attain designated types of performances (Davis, 1989). It is concerned not with one's skills but with judgments of what can be done with those skills (Davis, 1989). In conventional training settings, self-efficacy was linked to student satisfaction (Bolliger & Martindale, 2004). Additionally, this same finding ws applied to the technology domain. The literature demonstrated that computer self-efficacy can influence satisfaction or a person's positive affect towards computers and other technology (Downey, 2006; Liaw, Chang, Hung, & Huang, 2006; McDonald & Siegall, 1992). A great deal of empirical research has linked self-efficacy with satisfaction (Downey, 2006; Peng, Tsai, & Wu, 2006; McDonald & Siegall, 1992).

Self-efficacy has been found to correlate not only with satisfaction but also with usefulness. E-learning's usefulness depends of employees' job performance. Rather than traveling to a particular location to satisfy training requirements, employees can take online courses. Consequently, they will have more time to fulfill other work-related responsibilities. The literature has shown that when individuals have higher self-efficacy with regards to information technology, they also feel that this technology is more useful (Compeau & Higgins, 1995; Compeau, Higgins, & Huff, 1999). Moreover, investigators revealed that university students with positive Internet self-efficacy and attitudes were more inclined to perceive the Internet as a functional tool (Liaw, 2007; Peng, Tsai, & Wu, 2006). Additionally, Chau (1996) has suggested that computer self-efficacy may be an important factor affecting perceived usefulness. Since the literature has shown that there is a relationship between technology self-efficacy and usefulness, the notion that e-learner self-efficacy and usefulness are correlated is logical.

Results and Discussion

The present article includes a summary of the study, which will be divided into the following four sections: (a) Discussion of the Findings, (b) Limitations, (c) Implications, and (d) Suggestions for Future Research. The present research examined learners' perceptions of e-leaming; specifically, it measured employees' reactions toward mandatory online courses. Because it is common practice for public and private companies to deliver online training classes to their workforce, employees were selected to participate in the present study (Zimmerman, 2001). What follows is a discussion of the relationships among learner satisfaction, self-efficacy, and usefulness within an e-learning context.

Hypothesis 1 asserted that there was a positive correlation between e-leaming self-efficacy and e-learner satisfaction. Hypothesis 1 was supported; the finding was significant. This result showed that high self-efficacy scores also had high satisfaction scores as they related to the overall quality of the e-leaming context, such as the online content, learner interface, and ease of use. Conversely, employees who were satisfied with taking mandated e-learning training also believed that they were capable of performing the necessary actions to complete them. This finding suggests that employees who think that they can successfully use the computer and Internet to complete an e-learning course will be satisfied with that course even when it is required by their organization. Therefore, employees' satisfaction levels with an e-leaming course may less related to its being a requirement than to their own e-learning self-efficacy levels. Because federal and state laws mandate several employee training courses, this finding is important to note. Organizations ought to comply with these laws and make sure their employees have completed the necessary training courses.

The result, a positive correlation between e-leaming self-efficacy and e-leamer satisfaction, obtained in the present study was consistent with the findings in the education and computer literatures. Chu (2006) analyzed university students' self-efficacy and satisfaction perceptions of four training sessions totaling 12 hours. Using a two-comparison groups design, he analyzed the perceptions of both groups (Chu, 2006). Through a regression analysis and the MannWhitney U-test, he found that students in the experimental group had higher self-efficacy and satisfaction levels than did the control group (Chu, 2006). Several other investigators examined Internet search engines as learning tools, found that self-efficacy and satisfaction were significantly and positively correlated (Starr, 2002; Liaw, 2006). Specifically, selfefficacy of search engines was significantly related to the satisfaction of search engine efficiency (r =.51, p < .01) and the satisfaction of search engine quality (r =.41, p < .01). In fact, the results from the regression analysis revealed that perceived satisfaction of search quality and efficiency were the largest predictors of perceived self-efficacy of search engines (Liaw, et al., 2006). Additionally, Starr (2002) found that technological self-efficacy and satisfaction had a positive correlation (r =.41, p = .006). This result was similar to the results of the present study. Furthermore, it was found that self-efficacy positively influenced a student's behavioral intention to use the electronic learning tool (Liaw, et al., 2006).

Ajzen and Fishbein's (1980) Theory of Reasoned Action described how these behavioral intentions influence an individual's attitudes. When applying this theory and previous research to the result obtained from Hypothesis 1, employees who are satisfied with mandated e-leaming training courses also would probably take and complete them. Once employees are satisfied, they will continue to use online trainings (Adamson & Shine, 2003; Wang, 2003). Although the present study did not research behavioral intentions, it is important to note that e-learner satisfaction and self-efficacy will affect employees' decisions to either complete or drop out of mandated e-leaming training programs (Liaw, et al., 2006; Khorrami-Arani, 2001; Wang, 2003). Since these programs are not optional, in order to stay compliant with federal and state training mandates, organizations will benefit from knowing employee self-efficacy and satisfaction levels of with regards to e-learning. The federal government requires firms to carry out training for new and changing regulations. As new government regulations surface, new educational initiatives seem to follow, thus introducing new challenges for organizations that use only one compliance officer to stay abreast of new regulations and keep track of mandated training programs (Kapp & McKeague, 2006). One possible approach to ensure employees have completed a mandated training program is to assess their self-efficacy and satisfaction levels by administering evaluation surveys. In fact, satisfaction surveys have become a standard tool used by corporations and educational institutions to evaluate programs, courses, and to measure e-leaming success (Adamson & Shine, 2003; Bolliger & Martindale, 2004). Thus, the data retrieved from these surveys will provide training managers with some insight as to whether the mandated online training would be successful.

Hypothesis 2 stated that perceived usefulness would be positively related with e-leamer satisfaction. Hypothesis 2 was supported. As predicted, the present study found a significant positive association between employees' perceived usefulness of online training and their satisfaction with the process. This finding shows that employees who believe that taking mandated training online would improve their job performance will also be satisfied with the training. Perhaps employees viewed e-leaming as useful (valuable) because they thought it would improve their performance on the job. They were expected by management to take the required training programs as well as to perform their normal daily job responsibilities. By offering these programs online, employees could meet these demands without having to leave the office or suspend working on a time-sensitive job-related task. Because the trainings were conveniently located in an elearning management system, employees could take them either in one sitting or over a period of time. Unlike classroom training, e-leaming gives employees the ability to start and stop the training session if their jobs call demands immediate attention. For example, employees could sign themselves off in the middle of an online class to attend to other workrelated tasks and return at a later date to the same place without having to start at the beginning of the training. This is not possible in a traditional classroom environment. If an employee had to leave a training session early, that session would have to be rescheduled at a later date convenient both to the trainer and the other members of the class. Rescheduling a classroom training session is often time consuming and inconvenient because it involves shuffling work schedules. This could impact work productivity because employees may spend more time adjusting their schedules, such as canceling meetings or rescheduling appointments, rather than working. Based on the results derived from the analysis of Hypothesis 2, one might conclude that employees were satisfied with mandatory e-leaming training sessions because they were able to complete them during times that were conducive to their work schedule. E-leaming training sessions were divided into smaller, manageable parts or modules. Taking several modules in one sitting rather than the entire eight hour training gives employees the opportunity to balance other daily work-related responsibilities. In this instance, taking mandated training online is considered highly valuable because employees can be more productive. The result obtained from Hypothesis 2 supported the empirical research findings of Peng, Tsai, and Wu (2006), whose university students demonstrated positive attitudes towards the Internet and appreciated how useful and functional it had become for educational purposes. Other researchers examined employees' attitudes and found significant and positive relationships between usefulness and satisfaction (Adamson & Shine, 2003; Bean & Bradley, 1986; Konradt, Christophersen, & Schaefer-Kuelz, 2006; Wu, Tasi, Chen, & Wu, 2006). Particularly within the banking industry, usefulness of a newly implemented electronic operation system was significantly (r = .63, p <. 01) correlated to end-user satisfaction (Adamson & Shine, 2003). Furthermore, perceived usefulness of an electronic employee self-service system was significantly related to user satisfaction and system use (r = .42, p < .001, and r = .25) (Konradt, Christophersen, & Schaefer-Kuelz, 2006). These findings imply that employees who were not satisfied with mandated e-leaming training programs may have thought they were useless and decided not to take them. The decision whether or not to take mandated e-leaming training can be explained by the Technology Acceptance Model (see Figure 2), a model developed from the Theory of Reasoned Action (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1980) to predict technology use and acceptance (Davis, 1993). According to this model, as well as results from previous research studies, perceived usefulness has a significant impact on e-learner satisfaction and even further effects on actual e-leaming use (Davis, 1993).

Hypothesis 3 stated that e-learning self-efficacy would be positively related with perceived usefulness. Hypothesis 3 was confirmed; there was a significant positive association between e-learning self-efficacy and perceived usefulness. This finding was similar to the research findings of Peng, Tsai, and Wu (2006), whose sample of college students with positive Internet self-efficacy perceptions also perceived the Internet as a valuable and functional tool. Specifically, undergraduate and graduate students who believed that the Internet had a positive effect on people also felt confident about Internet-based communication or Internet-based interaction (Peng, Tsai, & Wu, 2006). Similar results were found when Liaw (2007) examined student and faculty perceptions regarding computers and the Internet. What is noteworthy about Liaw's (2007) research is that these perceptions influenced an individual's behavioral intentions to use computers and the Internet. The literature has also shown that end users with high information- stay compliant with federal and state training mandates technology self-efficacy will perceive information technology as a useful and resourceful tool (Compeau & Higgins, 1995; Compeau, Higgins, & Huff, 1999). According to Chau (1996) computer self-efficacy can be a key factor affecting perceived usefulness; therefore, self-efficacy and perceived usefulness are necessary learner characteristics for effective e-leaming training programs. Among the three hypotheses tested, Hypothesis 2 had the strongest correlation. Perhaps the reason for this is that employees who believe that a particular technical system will improve their work productivity will also be satisfied with it. Based on past research findings within the literature, it is apparent that self-efficacy, perceived usefulness, and satisfaction are fundamental learner characteristics for mandated electronic learning success.